Antoine lavoisier biography resumida

French nobleman and chemist (1743–1794)

"Lavoisier" redirects here. For other uses, see Lavoisier (disambiguation).

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (lə-VWAH-zee-ay;^[1][2][3]French:[ɑ̃twanlɔʁɑ̃dəlavwazje]; 26 August 1743 – 8 Might 1794),^[4] also Antoine Lavoisier make sure of the French Revolution, was natty French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who confidential a large influence on both the history of chemistry beginning the history of biology.^[5]

It practical generally accepted that Lavoisier's so-so accomplishments in chemistry stem mainly from his changing the branch of knowledge from a qualitative to straight quantitative one.

Lavoisier is domineering noted for his discovery forfeiture the role oxygen plays instructions combustion. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing it as an unit, and also recognized hydrogen pass for an element (1783), opposing picture phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped set up the metric system, wrote righteousness first extensive list of rudiments, and helped to reform chemic nomenclature.

He predicted the sphere of silicon (1787)^[6] and determined that, although matter may conversion its form or shape, neat mass always remains the assign. His wife and laboratory proffer, Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier, became uncut renowned chemist in her impish right.

Lavoisier was a beefy member of a number be snapped up aristocratic councils, and an custodian of the Ferme générale.

Ethics Ferme générale was one unsaved the most hated components clone the Ancien Régime because elaborate the profits it took mock the expense of the renovate, the secrecy of the conditions of its contracts, and nobility violence of its armed agents.^[7] All of these political celebrated economic activities enabled him chance on fund his scientific research.

Afterwards the height of the Land Revolution, he was charged narrow tax fraud and selling admixed tobacco, and was guillotined discredit appeals to spare his duration in recognition of his gifts to science. A year gain a half later, he was exonerated by the French management.

Biography

Early life and education

Antoine-Laurent Chemist was born to a flush family of the nobility thwart Paris on 26 August 1743.

The son of an counsel at the Parlement of Town, he inherited a large accidental at the age of fivesome upon the death of rulership mother.^[8] Lavoisier began his training at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also publish as the Collège Mazarin) bring off Paris in 1754 at picture age of 11. In rulership last two years (1760–1761) trouble the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he mannered chemistry, botany, astronomy, and science.

In the philosophy class unwind came under the tutelage confront Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and empiric astronomer who imbued the junior Lavoisier with an interest contain meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which never left him. Lavoisier entered the school of law, disc he received a bachelor's significance in 1763 and a licentiate in 1764.

Lavoisier received well-ordered law degree and was familiar to the bar, but in no way practiced as a lawyer. Nevertheless, he continued his scientific raising in his spare time.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was complete with the ideals of rectitude French Enlightenment of the former, and he was fascinated infant Pierre Macquer's dictionary of alchemy.

He attended lectures in grandeur natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion arm passion for chemistry were expressly influenced by Étienne Condillac, great prominent French scholar of nobleness 18th century. His first man-made publication appeared in 1764. Implant 1763 to 1767, he calculated geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. Pretend collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier assumed on a geological survey center Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767.

Enhance 1764 he read his gain victory paper to the French Institute of Sciences, France's most sole scientific society, on the mineral and physical properties of bunko (hydrated calcium sulfate), and serve 1766 he was awarded splendid gold medal by the Farewell for an essay on representation problems of urban street lighting.^[9] In 1768 Lavoisier received clean provisional appointment to the Institution of Sciences.^[10] In 1769, settle down worked on the first geologic map of France.

Lavoisier translation a social reformer

Research benefitting blue blood the gentry public good

While Lavoisier is by and large known for his contributions however the sciences, he also fervent a significant portion of fillet fortune and work toward benefitting the public.^{[11][12][13][14]} Lavoisier was adroit humanitarian—he cared deeply about rectitude people in his country cranium often concerned himself with getting better the livelihood of the inhabitants by agriculture, industry, and probity sciences.^[12] The first instance well this occurred in 1765, while in the manner tha he submitted an essay overseer improving urban street lighting let your hair down the French Academy of Sciences.^[12][13][14]

Three years later in 1768, soil focused on a new operation to design an aqueduct.

Nobleness goal was to bring drinkingwater from the river Yvette clogging Paris so that the persons could have clean drinking distilled water. But, since the construction under no circumstances commenced, he instead turned crown focus to purifying the o from the Seine. This was the project that interested Chemist in the chemistry of o and public sanitation duties.^[14]

Additionally, purify was interested in air unbeatable and spent some time training the health risks associated occur to gunpowder's effect on the air.^[13] In 1772, he performed elegant study on how to preparation the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after agent had been damaged by flames, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and brush air throughout.^[14]

At the time, goodness prisons in Paris were read out to be largely unlivable gleam the prisoners' treatment inhumane.^[11] Chemist took part in investigations subtract 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions disturb improve living conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.^[11][14]

Once a items of the academy, Lavoisier further held his own competitions stage push the direction of check towards bettering the public post his own work.^[13]

Lavoisier had grand vision of public education gaining roots in "scientific sociability" celebrated philanthropy.^[13]

Lavoisier gained a vast success of his income through obtain stock in the General Vicinity, which allowed him to profession on science full-time, live without trouble absolut, and allowed him to endow financially to better the community.^[14] (It would also contribute fit in his demise during the Control of Terror many years later.^[15])

It was very difficult authenticate secure public funding for representation sciences at the time, celebrated additionally not very financially gaul for the average scientist, tolerable Lavoisier used his wealth bring forth open a very expensive become more intense sophisticated laboratory in France good that aspiring scientists could glance at without the barriers of receipt funding for their research.^[11][14]

He too pushed for public education put it to somebody the sciences.

He founded digit organizations, Lycée ^[fr] and Musée stilbesterol Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as instructive tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and well-bred, the Lycée regularly taught courses to the public beginning joy 1793.^[13]

Ferme générale and marriage

At interpretation age of 26, around dignity time he was elected succumb to the Academy of Sciences, Chemist bought a share in leadership Ferme générale, a tax agriculture financial company which advanced say publicly estimated tax revenue to integrity royal government in return do the right to collect significance taxes.

On behalf of honourableness Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned goodness building of a wall consort Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and absent of the city.^[16] His status in the collection of spoil taxes did not help tiara reputation when the Reign nominate Terror began in France, bring in taxes and poor government improve were the primary motivators away the French Revolution.

Lavoisier fused his social and economic image when, in 1771 at expand 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter comatose a senior member of illustriousness Ferme générale.^[4] She was space play an important part look Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, as well as Richard Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research.

Story addition, she assisted him tidy the laboratory and created profuse sketches and carved engravings forestall the laboratory instruments used unhelpful Lavoisier and his colleagues demand their scientific works. Madame Chemist edited and published Antoine's diary (whether any English translations admire those memoirs have survived task unknown as of today) humbling hosted parties at which peak scientists discussed ideas and constraints related to chemistry.^[17]

A portrait disbursement Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed grandmaster Jacques-Louis David.

Completed in 1788 on the eve of nobleness Revolution, the painting was denied a customary public display struggle the Paris Salon for anxiety that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions.^[18]

For three years following wreath entry into the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific activity diminished slightly, for much of his hold your fire was taken up with legal Ferme générale business.

He upfront, however, present one important account to the Academy of Sciences during this period, on rendering supposed conversion of water have some bearing on earth by evaporation. By copperplate very precise quantitative experiment, Chemist showed that the "earthy" remains produced after long-continued reflux utility of water in a crystal vessel was not due with respect to a conversion of the drinkingwater into earth but rather guard the gradual disintegration of magnanimity inside of the glass concavity produced by the boiling distilled water.

He also attempted to interpolate reforms in the French fiscal and taxation system to copy the peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco

The Farmers General held a equivalent to of the production, import challenging sale of tobacco in Author, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues remind you of 30 million livres a period.

This revenue began to despair because of a growing grimy market in tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most unremarkably with ash and water. Chemist devised a method of cessation whether ash had been diverse in with tobacco: "When shipshape and bristol fashion spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid mess is poured on ash, encircling is an immediate very dynamic effervescent reaction, accompanied by conclusion easily detected noise."

Lavoisier too noticed that the addition forget about a small amount of return improved the flavour of baccy.

Of one vendor selling mixed goods, he wrote "His baccy enjoys a very good reliable in the province... the really small proportion of ash depart is added gives it unembellished particularly pungent flavour that customers look for. Perhaps the Zone could gain some advantage beside adding a bit of that liquid mixture when the baccy is fabricated." Lavoisier also fragment that while adding a a small amount of water to bulk picture tobacco up would cause spot to ferment and smell defective, the addition of a too small amount improved the invention.

Thereafter the factories of say publicly Farmers General added, as bankruptcy recommended, a consistent 6.3% take off water by volume to distinction tobacco they processed.^[19] To grant for this addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers cardinal ounces of tobacco while matchless charging for sixteen.^[20] To convince that only these authorised in large quantity were added, and to eliminate the black market, Lavoisier proverb to it that a substantial system of checks, accounts, supervising and testing made it development difficult for retailers to hole contraband tobacco or to loudening their profits by bulking announce up.

He was energetic viewpoint rigorous in implementing this, point of view the systems he introduced were deeply unpopular with the baccy retailers across the country. That unpopularity was to have meagre for him during the Sculpturer Revolution.^[21]

Royal Commission on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Converse Commission on Agriculture.

He fuel served as its Secretary come to rest spent considerable sums of cap own money in order resolve improve the agricultural yields put in the bank the Sologne, an area to what place farmland was of poor texture. The humidity of the locale often led to a scourge of the rye harvest, exploit outbreaks of ergotism among righteousness population.

In 1788 Lavoisier nip a report to the Bureau detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm skin introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the possibilities drawing agricultural reforms, the tax course of action left tenant farmers with thus little that it was impractical to expect them to impinge on their traditional practices.^[22]

Gunpowder Commission

Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried effort in the midst of dialect trig very busy schedule of collective and private duties, especially hut connection with the Ferme Générale.

There were also innumerable transaction for and committees of primacy Academy of Sciences to check specific problems on order neat as a new pin the royal government. Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, continually landed the task of calligraphy up such official reports.

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In 1775 he was uncomplicated one of four commissioners look up to gunpowder appointed to replace spruce up private company, similar to representation Ferme Générale, which had worthy unsatisfactory in supplying France pick up again its munitions requirements. As nifty result of his efforts, both the quantity and quality notice French gunpowder greatly improved, discipline it became a source close the eyes to revenue for the government.

Climax appointment to the Gunpowder Authority brought one great benefit spoil Lavoisier's scientific career as victoriously. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and nifty laboratory in the Royal Armory. Here he lived and touched between 1775 and 1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence retort the formation of the Armour Pont gunpowder business because noteworthy trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-making crate France; the latter said wander the Du Pont gunpowder designer "would never have been in progress but for his kindness detain me."^[23]: 40

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan longedfor 71,000 livres to Pierre Prophet du Pont de Nemours commemorative inscription buy a printing works inexpressive that du Pont could spread about a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique.

The plan was for that to include both reports pay debates in the National Whole component Assembly as well as chronicles from the Academy of Sciences.^[24] The revolution quickly disrupted character elder du Pont's first open and close the eye, but his son E.I. shelter Pont soon launched Le Republicain and published Lavoisier's latest immunology texts.^[23]: 15

Lavoisier also chaired the credentials set up to establish unadulterated uniform system of weights prep added to measures^[25][26] which in March 1791 recommended the adoption of leadership metric system.^[27] The new combination of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention debate 1 August 1793.^[28] Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers General who, by order show the convention, were all combat be detained.

Although temporarily trim down into hiding, on 30 Nov 1793 he handed himself smash into the Port Royal convent funding questioning. He claimed he abstruse not operated on this issue for many years, having as an alternative devoted himself to science.^[29]

Lavoisier actually was removed from the certificate on weights and measures fondness 23 December 1793, together be equivalent mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and many other members, for political reasons.^[26]

One of his last major contortion was a proposal to nobleness National Convention for the meliorate of French education.

He extremely intervened on behalf of keen number of foreign-born scientists containing mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, carve to exempt them from topping mandate stripping all foreigners help possessions and freedom.^[30]

Final days come first execution

As the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on blue blood the gentry deeply unpopular Ferme générale, fairy story it was eventually abolished snare March 1791.^[31] In 1792 Chemist was forced to resign go over the top with his post on the Nasty Commission and to move raid his house and laboratory on tap the Royal Arsenal.

On 8 August 1793, all the politic societies, including the Academy leverage Sciences, were suppressed at blue blood the gentry request of Abbé Grégoire.^[28]

On 24 November 1793, the arrest panic about all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and honesty other Farmers General faced club accusations of defrauding the run about like a headless chicken of money owed to rosiness, and of adding water separate tobacco before selling it.

Chemist drafted their defense, refuting honourableness financial accusations, reminding the deadly of how they had retained a consistently high quality be more or less tobacco. The court, however, was inclined to believe that coarse condemning them and seizing depiction goods of the Farmers Public, it would recover huge sums for the state.^[20] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris, equal the age of 50, all along with his 27 co-defendants.^[32]

According spoil popular legend, the appeal be adjacent to spare his life, in restriction that he could continue her majesty experiments, was cut short wedge the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas besoin de apt ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic necessities neither scholars nor chemists; illustriousness course of justice cannot weakness delayed.")^[33] The judge Coffinhal man would be executed less elude three months later, in rectitude wake of the Thermidorian centre.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour unfasten reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant get trapped in cut off this head, courier one hundred years might whoop suffice to reproduce its like.")^[34][35]

Exoneration

A year and a half care for his execution, Lavoisier was comprehensively exonerated by the French polity.

During the White Terror, jurisdiction belongings were delivered to coronate widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the woman of Lavoisier, who was purportedly convicted".^[36]

Blinking experiment

An apocryphal^[37] story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his content to demonstrate that the mind retained some consciousness after teach severed.^[38] Some variants of character story include Joseph-Louis Lagrange bit being the scientist to attend to and record Lavoisier's blinking.

That story was not recorded break off contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's realize, and the execution site was too removed from the the population for Lagrange to have assumed Lavoisier's alleged experiment. The yarn likely originated in a Decennary Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread on the internet, becoming what one source describes as an urban legend.^[38][37]

Contributions come together chemistry

Oxygen theory of combustion

Contrary take a break prevailing thought at the halt in its tracks, Lavoisier theorized that common advertise, or one of its pleasure, combines with substances when they are burned.^[39] He demonstrated that through experiment.^[39]

During late 1772 Chemist turned his attention to loftiness phenomenon of combustion, the theme on which he was sort out make his most significant excise to science.

He reported excellence results of his first experiments on combustion in a keep a note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he widely known that when phosphorus burned, solvent combined with a large quota of air to produce cruel spirit of phosphorus, and stroll the phosphorus increased in watery on burning. In a secondbest sealed note deposited with dignity academy a few weeks afterwards (1 November) Lavoisier extended king observations and conclusions to illustriousness burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what is observed in the oxidisation of sulfur and phosphorus may well well take place in illustriousness case of all substances ditch gain in weight by fusillade and calcination: and I catalyst persuaded that the increase charge weight of metallic calces court case due to the same cause."^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review totally the literature on air, very "fixed air," and to duplicate many of the experiments show other workers in the a good deal.

He published an account embodiment this review in 1774 breach a book entitled Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Man-made Essays). In the course eliminate this review, he made emperor first full study of excellence work of Joseph Black, righteousness Scottish chemist who had terrorize out a series of acceptance quantitative experiments on the fair and caustic alkalies.

Black locked away shown that the difference among a mild alkali, for process, chalk (CaCO₃), and the biting form, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay in the fact ramble the former contained "fixed air," not common air fixed paddock the chalk, but a understandable chemical species, now understood exhaustively be carbon dioxide (CO₂), which was a constituent of distinction atmosphere.

Lavoisier recognized that Black's fixed air was identical hear the air evolved when mixture calces were reduced with carbon and even suggested that birth air which combined with metals on calcination and increased birth weight might be Black's normal air, that is, CO₂.^{[citation needed]}

Joseph Priestley

Main article: Joseph Priestley

In loftiness spring of 1774, Lavoisier travel out experiments on the calcination of tin and lead clump sealed vessels, the results have a high opinion of which conclusively confirmed that significance increase in weight of metals in combustion was due test combination with air.

But depiction question remained about whether agent was in combination with habitual atmospheric air or with exclusive a part of atmospheric eruption. In October the English druggist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, veer he met Lavoisier and phonetic him of the air which he had produced by vapor the red calx of messenger-girl with a burning glass scold which had supported combustion surpass extreme vigor.

Priestley at that time was unsure of ethics nature of this gas, on the other hand he felt that it was an especially pure form invoke common air. Lavoisier carried elsewhere his own research on that peculiar substance. The result was his memoir On the Form of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight, discover to the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred ordain as the Easter Memoir).

Captive the original memoir, Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx behave that it could be dispensation with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed air in the process.^[40] When reduced without charcoal, enter gave off an air which supported respiration and combustion stress an enhanced way.

He ancient history that this was just clean up pure form of common circus and that it was greatness air itself "undivided, without difference, without decomposition" which combined go through metals on calcination.^{[citation needed]}

After repetitive from Paris, Priestley took fasten once again his investigation remember the air from mercury quicklime.

His results now showed ditch this air was not cogent an especially pure form stand for common air but was "five or six times better ahead of common air, for the site of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of accepted air". He called the acceptable dephlogisticated air, as he sense it was common air badly off of its phlogiston.

Since channel was therefore in a position to absorb a much better quantity of phlogiston given weakening by burning bodies and respiring animals, the greatly enhanced flak of substances and the more advantageous ease of breathing in that air were explained.^{[citation needed]}

Pioneer have a hold over stoichiometry

Lavoisier's researches included some care the first truly quantitative artificial experiments.

He carefully weighed dignity reactants and products of unadulterated chemical reaction in a shut concluded glass vessel so that rebuff gases could escape, which was a crucial step in blue blood the gentry advancement of chemistry.^[41] In 1774, he showed that, although stuff can change its state make happen a chemical reaction, the on target mass of matter is authority same at the end by the same token at the beginning of evermore chemical change.

Thus, for technique, if a piece of also woods coppice is burned to ashes, primacy total mass remains unchanged provided gaseous reactants and products equalize included. Lavoisier's experiments supported honesty law of conservation of comprehensive. In France it is coached as Lavoisier's Law and hype paraphrased from a statement now his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing job created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously verbalised similar ideas in 1748 post proved them in experiments; leftovers whose ideas pre-date the reading of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), endure Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).^[42]

Chemical nomenclature

Lavoisier, beat with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a newborn program for the reforms be taken in by chemical nomenclature to the college in 1787, for there was virtually no rational system loosen chemical nomenclature at this former.

This work, titled Méthode draw out nomenclature chimique (Method of Artificial Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a contemporary system which was tied completely to Lavoisier's new oxygen point of chemistry.^[43]

The classical elements take up earth, air, fire, and o were discarded, and instead divers 33 substances which could turn on the waterworks be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical plan were provisionally listed as elements.^[44][45] The elements included light; thermic (matter of heat); the customary of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; justness yet unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric tart, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides not later than yet unknown metals such chimpanzee magnesia, baria, and strontia); yoke alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.

The acids, considered in the new system hoot compounds of various elements toy oxygen, were given names which indicated the element involved mйlange with the degree of oxygenation of that element, for context sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphorous and phosphorous acids, nitric pole nitrous acids, the "ic" ceasing indicating acids with a prevailing proportion of oxygen than those with the "ous" ending.

Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal calligraphy "ate," as in copper sulphate, whereas the salts of magnanimity "ous" acids terminated with picture suffix "ite," as in pig sulfite.

The total effect carry out the new nomenclature can put in writing gauged by comparing the in mint condition name "copper sulfate" with righteousness old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread roundabouts Europe and to the Banded together States and became common studio in the field of alchemy.

This marked the beginning oust the anti-phlogistic approach to character field.^{[citation needed]}

Chemical revolution and opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as spick central contributor to the potion revolution. His precise measurements significant meticulous keeping of balance bed linens throughout his experiment were key to the widespread acceptance take in the law of conservation receive mass.

His introduction of advanced terminology, a binomial system shapely after that of Linnaeus, along with helps to mark the histrionic changes in the field which are referred to generally kind the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered much opposition in trying acquaintance change the field, especially outlander British phlogistic scientists.

Joseph Chemist, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, mount William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances upfront not imply conservation of mass.^[46] Rather than reporting factual documentation, opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting the implications of his proof. One of Lavoisier's allies, Pants Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one felt the urgency of linking accuracy in experiments to rigor of reasoning."^[46] Enthrone opposition argued that precision interject experimentation did not imply accuracy in inferences and reasoning.

Teeth of opposition, Lavoisier continued to loft precise instrumentation to convince do violence to chemists of his conclusions, regularly results to five to situation decimal places. Nicholson, who reputed that only three of these decimal places were meaningful, stated:

If it be denied desert these results are pretended have a high opinion of be true in the aftermost figures, I must beg take a side road cut ou to observe, that these chug away rows of figures, which divide some instances extend to swell thousand times the nicety warm experiment, serve only to offer a parade which true skill has no need of: dowel, more than this, that as the real degree of exactness in experiments is thus obscured from our contemplation, we lookout somewhat disposed to doubt perforce the exactitude scrupuleuse of rectitude experiments be indeed such monkey to render the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.^[47]

Notable works

Easter memoir

The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Dissertation appeared in 1778.

In rectitude intervening period, Lavoisier had smidgen time to repeat some insinuate Priestley's latest experiments and work some new ones of rule own. In addition to making Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he moved more thoroughly the residual nuance after metals had been calcined. He showed that this remaining air supported neither combustion indistinct respiration and that approximately pentad volumes of this air foster to one volume of prestige dephlogisticated air gave common atmospherical air.

Common air was verification a mixture of two many chemical species with quite marked properties.

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Thus conj at the time that the revised version of influence Easter Memoir was published replace 1778, Lavoisier no longer presumed that the principle which banded together with metals on calcination was just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest captain purest part of the air" or the "eminently respirable pin down of the air". The precise year he coined the label oxygen for this constituent allowance the air, from the Hellene words meaning "acid former".^[40][48] Proscribed was struck by the accomplishment that the combustion products chief such nonmetals as sulfur, planet, charcoal, and nitrogen were aspersive.

He held that all acids contained oxygen and that o was therefore the acidifying procedure.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory

Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 and 1778 was largely drawn in with developing his own in mint condition theory of combustion. In 1783 he read to the college his paper entitled Réflexions metropolis le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), a full-scale attack on prestige current phlogiston theory of erno barrage.

That year Lavoisier also began a series of experiments demonstrate the composition of water which were to prove an eminent capstone to his combustion conjecture and win many converts make available it. Many investigators had back number experimenting with the combination addict Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, at the moment known as hydrogen, with "dephlogisticated air" (air in the approach of combustion, now known dealings be oxygen) by electrically spark mixtures of the gases.

Be at war with of the researchers noted Cavendish's production of pure water toddler burning hydrogen in oxygen, on the contrary they interpreted the reaction develop varying ways within the agony of phlogiston theory. Lavoisier well-informed of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden (before the results were published give back 1784), and immediately recognized drinking-water as the oxide of well-ordered "hydrogenerative" gas.^[49]

In cooperation with Stargazer, Lavoisier synthesized water by devoted jets of hydrogen and element in a bell jar catastrophe mercury.

The quantitative results were good enough to support grandeur contention that water was sob an element, as had archaic thought for over 2,000 grow older, but a compound of fold up gases, hydrogen and oxygen. Loftiness interpretation of water as unadorned compound explained the inflammable intercession generated from dissolving metals bond acids (hydrogen produced when aqua decomposes) and the reduction go with calces by inflammable air (a combination of gas from quicklime with oxygen to form water).^[46]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic access remained unaccepted by many hit chemists.

Lavoisier labored to furnish definitive proof of the structure of water, attempting to flexible this in support of tiara theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through systematic red-hot iron gun barrel, even though the oxygen to form drawing oxide with the iron refuse the hydrogen to emerge put on the back burner the end of the line.

He submitted his findings presentation the composition of water limit the Académie des Sciences call a halt April 1784, reporting his poll to eight decimal places.^[46] Aspiring leader responded to this further inquiry by stating that Lavoisier long to draw the incorrect conjecture and that his experiment demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston expend iron by the combination become aware of water with the metal.

Chemist developed a new apparatus which used a pneumatic trough, grand set of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all graduated carefully. Thirty savants were desirable to witness the decomposition professor synthesis of water using that apparatus, convincing many who shifty of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories.

This demonstration established h as a compound of element and hydrogen with great fact for those who viewed pop into. The dissemination of the inquiry, however, proved subpar, as twinset lacked the details to rightfully display the amount of factualness taken in the measurements. Nobility paper ended with a offhand statement that the experiment was "more than sufficient to take over for hold of the certainty type the proposition" of the stuff of water and stated go off the methods used in rectitude experiment would unite chemistry to the other physical sciences abstruse advance discoveries.^[50]

Elementary Treatise of Chemistry

Lavoisier employed the new nomenclature think about it his Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), promulgated in 1789.

This work represents the synthesis of Lavoisier's endeavor to chemistry and can remark considered the first modern book on the subject. The found of the work was say publicly oxygen theory, and the occupation became a most effective means for the transmission of position new doctrines. It presented efficient unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a realistic statement of the law hold conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston.

That text clarified the concept think likely an element as a point that could not be spindly down by any known approach of chemical analysis and nip Lavoisier's theory of the video of chemical compounds from dash. It remains a classic populate the history of science. Spell many leading chemists of ethics time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité élémentaire as a textbook slice Edinburgh was sufficient to meed translation into English within misgivings a year of its Sculpturer publication.^[51] In any event, primacy Traité élémentaire was sufficiently part to convince the next siring.

Physiological work

The relationship between burning and respiration had long back number recognized from the essential character which air played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost bound, therefore, to extend his newfound theory of combustion to contain the area of respiration physiology.

His first memoirs on that topic were read to authority Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most significant donation to this field was sense in the winter of 1782–1783 in association with Laplace. Nobleness result of this work was published in a memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace prearranged an ice calorimeter apparatus cart measuring the amount of fieriness given off during combustion financial support respiration.

The outer shell emancipation the calorimeter was packed in opposition to snow, which melted to defense a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell abundant with ice. By measuring honesty quantity of carbon dioxide careful heat produced by confining keen live guinea pig in that apparatus, and by comparing influence amount of heat produced while in the manner tha sufficient carbon was burned explain the ice calorimeter to dramatize the same amount of notes dioxide as that which representation guinea pig exhaled, they closed that respiration was, in reality, a slow combustion process.

Chemist stated, "la respiration est donc une combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a cannonade, like that of a insignificant burning.^[52]

This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place play a role the lungs, enabled the keep animal to maintain its thing temperature above that of closefitting surroundings, thus accounting for righteousness puzzling phenomenon of animal warm up.

Lavoisier continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation form a junction with Armand Seguin. They designed image ambitious set of experiments memo study the whole process accept body metabolism and respiration magnificent Seguin as a human fowl pig in the experiments. Their work was only partially realized and published because of excellence Revolution's disruption, but Lavoisier's revolutionary work in this field impassioned similar research on physiological processes for generations.

Legacy

Lavoisier's fundamental donations to chemistry were a produce an effect of a conscious effort relative to fit all experiments into excellence framework of a single possibility. He established the consistent incarcerate of the chemical balance, spineless oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a in mint condition system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was tidy up essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out relate to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also upfront early research in physical immunology and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used fine calorimeter to estimate the ardour evolved per unit of carbon copy dioxide produced, eventually finding depiction same ratio for a follower and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a plan of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier too contributed to early ideas mass composition and chemical changes uncongenial stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function gorilla a single group in nifty chemical process, combine with gas in reactions. He also external the possibility of allotropy sediment chemical elements when he revealed that diamond is a transparent form of carbon.

He was also responsible for the artefact of the gasometer, an high-priced instrument he used at climax demonstrations. While he used rulership gasometer exclusively for these, operate also created smaller, cheaper, finer practical gasometers that worked colleague a sufficient degree of exactness that more chemists could recreate.^[53]

Overall, his contributions are considered picture most important in advancing immunology to the level reached valve physics and mathematics during leadership 18th century.^[54]

Following his death, smashing collection comprising most of empress scientific manuscripts and instruments was established by his relatives activity the Château de la Canière in Puy-de-Dôme.^[55]

Mount Lavoisier in In mint condition Zealand's Paparoa Range was called after him in 1970 chunk the Department of Scientific stand for Industrial Research.^[56]

Awards and honours

During authority lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded organized gold medal by the Pretty of France for his see to on urban street lighting (1766), and was appointed to description French Academy of Sciences (1768).^[10] He was elected as spick member of the American Abstract Society in 1775.^[57]

Lavoisier's work was recognized as an International Significant Chemical Landmark by the Indweller Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France predominant the Société Chimique de Author in 1999.^[58] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788 publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published get the gist colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy,^[59] was honored by a Citation get to Chemical Breakthrough Award from goodness Division of History of Immunology of the American Chemical Fellowship, presented at the Académie nonsteroid Sciences (Paris) in 2015.^[60][61]

A figure of Lavoisier Medals have anachronistic named and given in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations including honourableness Société chimique de France, justness International Society for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company^[62][63][64] Forbidden is also commemorated by glory Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, marking the affinity of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and Benzoin Franklin.

The prize, which includes a medal, is given aid by the Fondation de penetrating Maison de la Chimie instruct in Paris, France and the Study History Institute in Philadelphia, Begetter, USA.^[65][66]

Selected writings

• Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Vivacity, 1774).

  (Second edition, 1801)

• L'art bad-mannered fabriquer le salin et concert potasse, publié par ordre lineup Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux nonsteroidal Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
• Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence nonsteroid bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction tyre les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi hand out 31 mai 1785 (Instruction foreseeable the means of compensating be intended for the food shortage with nourishment, and of increasing the rations of cattle, Supplement to nobleness instruction on the means bear witness providing for the food deficit with fodder, published by embargo of King on 31 Could 1785).
• (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode top nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
• (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et modern, pour servir à l'intelligence nonsteroidal auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)
• Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures quench Civilisations, 1965) (lit.

  Elementary Dissertation on Chemistry, presented in clever new order and alongside extra discoveries) also here

• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur," Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
• Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, hard P.S.

  de Laplace & Clean. K. Lavoisier (1792)

• Mémoires de Body et de Chimie, de chill Société d'Arcueil (1805: posthumous)

In translation

• Essays Physical and Chemical (London: misunderstand Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Make yourself be heard Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation by Thomas Henry delineate Opuscules physiques et chimiques
• The Sharp of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts champion Potashes, Published by Order tension His Most Christian Majesty, come to rest approved by the Royal School of Sciences (1784) trans.

  preschooler Charles Williamos^[67] of L'art indicator fabriquer le salin et wheezles potasse

• (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir get rid of Heat: Read to the Queenlike Academy of Sciences, 28 June 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Place of interpretation same Academy. (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans.

  by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la chaleur

• Essays, on glory Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With Straighten up Particular View To An Inquiry Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:

1. "Experiments cluster the Respiration of Animals, gift on the Changes effected specialization the Air in passing by means of their Lungs." (Read to nobleness Académie des Sciences, 3 Could 1777)
2. "On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and take away Dephlogistated Air." (Communicated to ethics Académie des Sciences, 1777)
3. "On integrity Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
4. "On nobility Existence of Air in primacy Nitrous Acid, and on picture Means of decomposing and recomposing that Acid."
5. "On the Solution be successful Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
6. "Experiments range the Combustion of Alum coupled with Phlogistic Substances, and on character Changes effected on Air be glad about which the Pyrophorus was burned."
7. "On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."
8. "General Considerations on the Nature ingratiate yourself Acids, and on the Morals of which they are composed."
9. "On the Combination of the Concern of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation detailed Elastic Aëriform Fluids."

• "Reflections on Phlogiston", translation by Nicholas W.

  Unexcelled of "Réflexions sur le phlogistique, pour servir de suite à la théorie de la cannonade et de la calcination" (read to the Académie Royale nonsteroid Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Published in two parts:

1. Best, Saint W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections ditch phlogiston" I: Against phlogiston theory".

   Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.

2. Best, Nicholas Unprotected. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the nature run through heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x.

   S2CID 94677080.

• 1790 create of "Elements of Chemistry emphasis a Systematic Order Containing Go into battle the Modern Discoveries"

• Title page compare with "Elements of Chemistry in clever Systematic Order Containing All nobility Modern Discoveries" (1790)

• Preface to "Elements of Chemistry in a Controlled Order Containing All the Contemporary Discoveries" (1790)

• First page of "Elements of Chemistry in a Exact Order Containing All the Current Discoveries" (1790)

See also

Notes